1.5.3 Creativity. 12

1.6 Significance of the Study. 13

1.7 Limitations, Delimitations and Assumptions. 16

1.7.1 Limitations. 16

1.7.2 Delimitations. 18

1.7.3 Assumptions. 19

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE.. 20

2.1 Introduction. 21

2.2 Language Learning Strategies. 21

2.2.1 Definitions of Language Learning Strategies. 22

2.2.2 Background of Research on Language Learning Strategies. 25

2.2.3 Taxonomies of Language Learning Strategies. 26

2.2.4 Method to Investigate Learning Strategies. 35

2.2.5 Researches on Learning Strategies. 38

2.3 Language Learning Style. 43

2.3.1 What is Learning Style?. 43

2.3.2 Development of Learning Style. 45

2.3.3 Background of Research on Learning Styles. 54

2.3.4 Fundamentals of Learning Styles. 55

2.3.5 Definitions of Learning Styles. 56

2.3.6 Researches on Learning Styles. 60

2.3.7 Differences between Language Learning Styles and Strategies. 65

2.4 Creativity. 66

2.4.1 The History of Creativity. 66

2.4.2 The Background of Creativity. 68

2.4.3 Attributes of Creativity. 70

2.4.4 Barriers to Creativity. 72

2.4.5 Promoting Creativity. 73

2.4.6 Important Cognitive Processes Involved in Creativity. 75

2.4.7 Researches on Creativity. 77

CHAPTER III: METHOD.. 80

3.1 Introduction. 81

3.2 Participants. 81

3.3 Instrumentation. 82

3.3.1 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) 82

3.3.2 The Perceptual Learning Style Preference (PLSP) 86

3.3.3 Creativity Questionnaire (ACT) 89

3.4 Procedure. 93

3.5 Design. 95

3.6 Statistical Analyses. 95

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 97

4.1 Introduction. 98

4.2 Results of the Study. 100

4.2.1 Testing Assumptions. 100

4.3 Testing the Null Hypotheses. 108

4.3.1 Testing the First Null Hypothesis. 108

4.3.2 Testing the Second Null Hypothesis. 112

4.3.3 Testing the Third Null Hypothesis. 115

4.3.4 Testing the Fourth Null Hypothesis. 119

4.3.5 Testing the Fifth Null Hypothesis. 123

4.3.6 Testing the Sixth Null Hypothesis. 127

4.3.7 Testing the Seventh Null Hypothesis. 132

4.3.8 Testing the Eighth Null Hypothesis. 136

4.4 Construct Validity. 139

4.5 Conclusion. 142

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSION AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS. 146

5.1 Introduction. 147

5.2 Procedure and Summary of the Findings. 147

5.3 Discussion. 153

5.4 Pedagogical Implications. 158

5.4.1 Implication for EFL Teachers. 158

5.4.2 Implication for EFL Learners. 160

5.4.3 Implications for EFL Syllabus Designers, Curriculum Developers and Material Producers. 161

5.5. Suggestions for Further Research. 162

REFERENCES. 164

APPENDICES. 184

 

LISTS OF TABLES

Table 3.1: Reliability Index of SILL and Its Subcomponents ……………………….….…….…87

Table 3.2: Reliability Index of PLSP and Its Subcomponents ……………………..…….……….90

Table 3.3: Subcomponents and Items of the Persian Creativity Test …………………..…………..93

Table 3.4: Reliability Index of Creativity Questionnaire………………………………………….94

Table 4.1: Descriptive Statistics of SILL………………………………..………………..….……102

Table 4.2: Descriptive Statistics of PLSP……………………………………………………….104

Table 4.3: Descriptive Statistics of ACT……………………………………………………….105

Table 4.4: Correlations between Language Learning Strategies, Learning Style Preferences

and Creativity..………………………………………………………………………110

Table 4.5: Correlations between Subcomponents of Language Learning Strategies and Learning

Styles Preferences……………………………………………………………………114

Table 4.6: Correlation between EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and Creativity…117

Table 4.7: Correlations between EFL Learners’ learning Style Preferences.and Creativity…… 121

Table 4.8: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Learning Style Preferences and Language Learning Strategies…………….……125

Table 4.9: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Subcomponents of Learning Style and Strategies……………………….…………..127

Table 4.10: Model Summary, Regression Analysis Predicting Learning Strategy by Using Sub- components of Learning Style Preferences ………………………………………….129

Table 4.11: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Learning Strategy by Using the Subcomponents of Learning Style Preferences………………………….130

Table 4.12: Excluded Variables of Learning Style Preferences………………………………..130

Table 4.13: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Language Learning Strategies………………………………….……………….133

Table 4.14: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Language Learning Strategies…………………………………….134

Table 4.15: Model Summary; Regression Analysis Predicting Creativity by Using Components

of Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………………..136

Table 4.16: ANOVA Test of Significance of Regression Model; Predicting Creativity by Using

Components of Learning Style Preferences………………………………………..137

Table 4.17: Sampling Adequacy and Sphericity Assumptions………………..………………..139

Table 4.18: Total Variance Explained……………………………………………………….…140

Table 4.19: Rotated Components Matrix…………………………………………….…..….….141

Table 4.20: Summary of the Findings ………………………………………………………….143

LISTS OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies and

Learning Style Preferences………………………..………………………………..106

Figure 4.2: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategy and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………..…….107

Figure 4.3: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Learning Style Preferences and

Creativity………………………………………………………………..………….107

Figure 4.4: Scatter Plot of Studentized Residuals for Creativity…………………….………….109

Figure 4.5: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of Language Learning Strategies,

Learning Style Preferences and Creativity…………………………………….…..112

Figure 4.6: Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Language Learning Strategies and

Creativity……………………………………………………………………………..118

Figure 4.7: Scatter Plot of Testing Linearity Assumption of EFL Learners’ Learning Style

Preferences and Creativity………………………………………………..………….123

Figure 4.8: Scatter Plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies and Learning Style Preferences……………………………………………128

Figure 4.9: Scatter Plot of Testing Assumptions of Linearity and Homoscedasticity………….131

Figure 4.10:Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Language Learning

Strategies………………………………………………………………………….135

Figure 4.11:Scatter plot of Predicting Creativity by Using Components of Learning Style

Preferences………………………………………………………………………..138

 

LISTS OF ABBREVIATIONS

 

L1: Native Language

L2: Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

CR: Creativity

PLSP: Perceptual Learning Style Preference

SILL: Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

ACT: Abedi-Schumacher Creativity Test

 

 

CHAPTER I

 

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

 

 

1.1 Introduction

Today, it is almost known that each learner has his/her especial way of learning that may have a fundamental role in his/her success or failure (Fewell, 2010; Zare & Noordin, 2011). Over the recent decades most of the researchers have gradually moved from focusing on teaching paradigms toward exploring individual characteristics (Carson & Longhini, 2002; Oxford & Anderson, 1995). Therefore, the individuals and their differences have been the subject of many studies. Along these lines it seems that there is a highly demanding need to expand studies in these lines (Ghonsooly, Elahi, & Golparvar, 2012; Gilakjani & Ahmadi, 2011; Mohebi & Khodadady, 2011). As Grenbell and Harris (1999) state “methodology alone can never be a solution to language learning. Rather it is an aid and suggestion” (p.10). Most of the theories of learning are all attempts to describe universal human traits in learning (Brown, 2007). They seek to explain globally how people perceive, filter, store, and recall information. Such processes do not account for the differences across individuals in the way they learn, or for differences within any one individual (Brown, 2007) which are very important factors in the process of learning.

Among different personal traits, individual learners’ learning style preferences provide valuable insights into the educational context (Felder & Spurlin, 2005; Sternberg, 1990; Xu, 2011). Learning style is inherent and pervasive and is a blend of cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements (Willing, 1988). Learning style includes four aspects of a person: a) preferred or habitual patterns of mental functioning; b) patterns of attitudes and interests that affect what an individual will pay most attention to in a learning situation; c) a tendency to seek situations compatible with one’s own learning patterns; and d) a tendency to use certain learning strategies and avoid others (Brown, 2000).

Keefe (as cited in Brown, 2000) stated that learning styles might be thought of as “cognitive, affective, and physiological traits that are relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment” (p. 114).