Acknowledgements
This thesis would not have been completed were it not for the help rendered by the following organizations and individuals.
Firstly, the researcher is deeply grateful to her supervisor Dr. Gholam-Reza Abbasian for his great effort, without which this work would have never been completed. His overly enthusiasm and integral view on research and his mission for providing only high quality work and not less, has made a deep impression on the researcher. I owe him lot of gratitude for having shown me this way of research. He could not even realize how much I have learned from him. I am glad I have come to get to know him in my academic life. He always monitored my work and took effort in reading and providing me with valuable comments. He really has a sharp eye for minute details and possesses super-analytical skills. I have to acknowledge his important inputs in all chapters of the thesis.
The researcher would also like to thank her colleagues for the effort they exerted in helping the researcher scored the speaking test. Special thanks to my dear best friends Nasrin Nabavi Ekhlas , Zahra Naderi Farjad and Kosar Ghasemi who motivated me to work energetically and gave me some constructive comments on this thesis.
My thanks and appreciations also go to those informants from Islamic Azad University South Tehran Branch who provided me opportunity to have a wonderful learning experience during my study.
I would like to thank all the students who kindly participated in this study. And last but not the least, my heartfelt appreciations are due to my loving parents who understood and supported me while I was studying.
Dedications
This thesis is dedicated to all of them: My parents who were very enthusiastic, proud, and supporting me with their love, knowledge, wisdom, and guidance. To my siblings whose love was always the light of my life and from whom I have learned patience and endurance in all difficult and unbearable situations.
Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. IV
Table of Contents……………………………………………………………….. VII
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………… XII
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………. XIV
List of Abbreviation……………………………………………………………. XV
Chapter, I Introduction
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Theoretical Background ………………………………………………. 1
1.1.2 Task- based Language Teaching (TBLT)…………………. 2
1.1.3 Task………………………………………………………………….. 3
1.1.4 Creativity…………………………………………………………… 3
1.1.5 Autonomy …………………………………………………………. 5
1.1.6 Language Skills…………………………………………………… 5
1.1.6.1 Listening …………………………………………………. 6
1.1.6.2 Speaking …………………………………………………. 6
1.1.6.3 Reading …………………………………………………… 6
1.1.6.4 Writing…………………………………………………….. 6
1.2 Statement of Problem ………………………………………………….. 7
1.3 Purpose and Significant of the Study……………………………… 8
1.4 Research Questions …………………………………………………….. 9
1.5 Research Hypotheses………………………………………………….. 10
1.6 Definition of Key Terms……………………………………………… 10
1.6.1Autonomy………………………………………………………….. 10
1.6.2 Creativity …………………………………………………………. 11
1.6.3 Cue card……………………………………………………………. 11
1.6.4 Speaking ability…………………………………………………. 11
1.6.5 Task…………………………………………………………………. 11
1.6.6 TBLT……………………………………………………………….. 12
1.7 Limitations and Delimitations of the Study ………………….. 12
1.7.1 Limitations ………………………………………………………… 12
1.7.2 Delimitations ……………………………………………………… 13
Chapter II- Review of Related Literature
2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….. 14
2.2 Language Teaching Methods …………………………………………… 14
2.2.1 A Historical Perspective …………………………………………. 14
2.3 Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT)…………………………….. 18
2.3.1 What is a task?…………………………………………………….. 22
2.3.2 Task Types………………………………………………………….. 28
2.4 Research in Task-Based Teaching…………………………………….. 30
2.5 Task- based Teaching and Language Skills………………………… 32
2.5.1 What are Language Skills ………………………………………. 32
2.5.1.1 The Nature of Listening Comprehension …………. 32
2.5.1.1.1 Tasks for Listening Comprehension …….. 33
2.5.1.2 The Nature of Reading Skill ……………………………. 34
2.5.1.2.1 Tasks for Reading Comprehension……….. 35
2.5.1.3 The Nature of Reading Skill……………………………… 36
2.5.1.3.1 Tasks for Writing Skill …………………………. 36
2.5.1.4 The Nature of Speaking Skill …………………………… 37
2.5.1.4.1 Aspects of Speaking ……………………………. 39
2.5.1.4.2 Speaking Genres………………………………….. 40
2.5.1.4.3 Speaking Instructions ………………………….. 41
2.5.1.4.4 Tasks for Speaking Skill ………………………. 41
2.6 Research in Speaking Skill ……………………………………………… 42
2.7 Learning Characteristics …………………………………………………. 43
2.7.1 Personality…………………………………………………………… 43
2.7.2 Aptitude………………………………………………………………. 44
2.7.3 Motivation ………………………………………………………….. 45
2.7.4 Language Styles and Learning Strategies………………….. 45
2.7.4.1 Learning Styles ……………………………………………….. 45
2.7.4.1.1 Kolb’s and Riding’s Model of Learning Styles 46
2.7.4.2 Cognitive Styles …………………………………………. 47
2.7.5 Learning Strategies…………………………………………………….. 48
2.7.5.1 Cognitive Strategies …………………………………………….. 48
2.7.5.2 Metacognitive Strategies……………………………………….. 48
2.7.5.3 Social Strategies…………………………………………………… 48
2.7.5.4 Affective Strategies………………………………………………. 48
2.8 Language Learning…………………………………………………………. 48
2.8.1 The Nature of Input ………………………………………………. 48
2.8.2 The Process of Intake……………………………………………… 49
2.8.3 The Role of Interaction in the Classroom……………………. 49
2.8.4 The Role of Error……………………………………………………. 49
2.9 Research in Language Learners Characteristics…………………… 50
2.10 Learner Autonomy……………………………………………………….. 50
2.10.1 What is Autonomy?……………………………………………. 50
2.10.2 An Autonomous Learner Model……………………………. 52
2.10.3 Characteristics of Autonomous Learners………………… 52
2.11 Research in Learner Autonomy………………………………………. 53
2.12 Learner Creativity………………………………………………………… 53
2.12.1 What is Creativity?…………………………………………….. 53
2.12.2 Categories of Creativity………………………………………. 54
2.12.3 Academic Achievement……………………………………….. 55
2.12.4 The Components of Creative Performance…………….. 56
2.13 Research in Learner Creativity……………………………………….. 57
2.14 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 57
Chapter III- Method
3.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………….. 59
3.2 Participants…………………………………………………………………… 59
3.3 Instrumentation and Validation……………………………………….. 59
3.3.1 Questionnaires………………………………………………………. 59
3.3.1.1 Reliability ………………………………………………….. 60
3.3.1.2 Construct Validity ………………………………………. 60
3.3.2Materials……………………………………………………………… 62
3.4 Procedure …………………………………………………………………….. 62
3.5 Design …………………………………………………………………………. 63
3.6 Data Analysis ………………………………………………………………. 63
Chapter IV- Results and Discussion
4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 64
4.2 Results ………………………………………………………………………… 65
4.2.1 Testing Assumptions …………………………………………….. 65
4.2.2 PET Score General Language Proficiency ……………. 66
4.2.3 Oral Proficiency Test(Pretest) ……………………………. 67
4.2.4 Pretest of Autonomy ………………………………………… 69
4.2.5 Pretest of Creativity …………………………………………. 70
4.2.6 Investigation of the Major Research Question ……… 72
4.2.7 Investigation of the Major Research Question one … 75
4.2.8 Investigation of the Major Research Question two .. 77
4.2.9 Investigation of the Major Research Question Three 78
4.2.10 Investigation of the Major Research Question Four 79
4.2.11 Investigation of the Major Research Question Five . 81
4.2.12 Investigation of the Major Research Question Six .. 82
4.2.13 Investigation of the Major Research Question Seven 83
4.3. Discussion …………………………………………………………………… 85
Chapter V Conclusions, Implications and suggestions
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………. 90
5.2 Summary of the Findings ……………………………………………….. 90
5.3 Conclusions …………………………………………………………………. 92
5.4 Pedagogical Implications ………………………………………………… 93
5.5 Suggestions for Further studies ……………………………………….. 94
References …………………………………………………………………………. 95
Appendices ………………………………………………………………………. 103
Appendix A: Arjmand Creativity Questionnaire
Appendix B: Learner Autonomy Questionnaire ( Sara Cotterall, 2005)
Appendix C: Cue Cards
Appendix D: The Level Short Story
Appendix E: PET Sample
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Definition of Task………………………………………… 25
Table 2.2 Definition of Task as an Educational Activity…………… 26
Table 2.3 List of the major cognitive styles…………………………. 47
Table 3.1 Inter-Rater Reliability…………………………………….. 60
Table 3.2 Total Variance Explained…………………………………. 61
Table 3.3 Rotated Component Matrix……………………………….. 61
Table 4.1 Testing Normality Assumption……………………………. 65
Table 4.2 Descriptive Statistics, PET by Groups…………………….. 66
Table 4.3 Independent Sample Test, PET by Groups ……………….. 66
Table 4.4 Descriptive Statistics, Oral Proficiency Test( Pretest) by Groups ……………………………………………………………………………… 67
Table 4.5 Independent Sample Test, Oral Proficiency Test (Pretest)…. 68
Table 4.6 Descriptive Statistics, Pretest of Autonomy by Groups….. 69
Table 4.7 Independent Sample Test, Pretest of Autonomy by Groups.. 69
Table 4.8 Descriptive Statistics, Pretest of Creativity by Groups…… 70
Table 4.9 Independent Sample Test, Pretest of Creativity by Groups… 71
Table 4.10 Leven’s Test of Equality of Error Variances……………… 72
Table 4.11 Test of Between- Subjects Effects………………………… 72
Table 4.12 Description Statistics, Grand mean by Groups……………. 73
Table 4.13 Descriptive Statistics, Oral Proficiency Test, Creativity and Autonomy (Posttests)………………………………………………………. 73
Table 4.14 Multiple Comparison……………………………………… 73
Table 4.15 Descriptive Statistics, Interaction Effect…………………… 74
Table 4.16 Descriptive Statistics, Oral Proficiency Test( Posttest )by Groups………………………………………………………………….. 75
Table 4.17 Independent Sample Test, Oral Proficiency Test( Posttest) by Groups……………………………………………………………………. 76
Table 4.18 Paired Samples Statistics, Pretest and Posttest of Creativity.. 77
Table 4.19 Paired Sample –Test, Pretest and Posttest of Creativity (CCT Group)……………………………..……………………………………… 77
Table 4.20 Paired Samples Statistics, Pretest and Posttest of Autonomy.. 78
Table 4.21 Paired Sample t-test, pretest and Posttest of Autonomy (CCT Group)……………………………..……………………………………… 79
Table 4.22 Paired Samples Statistics, Pretest and Posttest of Autonomy.. 80
Table 4.23 Paired Samples t-test, Pretest and Posttest of Autonomy (LS Group)………………………………..……………………………………. 80
Table 4.24 Paired Samples Statistics, Pretest and Posttest of Creativity ( LS Group)……………………………………………………………………… 81
Table 4.25 Paired Samples t-test, Pretest and Posttest of Creativity ( LS Group)……………………………………………………………………… 81
Table 4.26 Descriptive Statistics, Posttest of autonomy by Groups……. 82
Table 4.27 Independent Samples Test, Posttest of Autonomy by Groups……………………………………………………………………… 83
Table 4.28 Descriptive Statistics, Posttest of Creativity by Groups……. 84
Table 4.29 Independent Samples Test, Posttest of Creativity by Groups……………………………………………………………………… 84
List of Figures
Graph4.1 PET by Groups………………………………………… 67
Graph4.2 Oral Proficiency Test( Pretest) by Groups ………………… 68
Graph4.3 Pretest of Autonomy by Groups …………………………. 70
Graph4.4 Pretest of Creativity by Groups ………………………….. 71
Graph4.5 Interaction between Groups and Tests ………………….. 75
Graph4.6 Oral Proficiency Test( Posttest) by Groups ……………. 76
Graph4.7 Pretest and Posttest of Creativity( CCT Groups) ………. 78
Graph4.8 Pretest and Posttest of Autonomy( CCT Groups) ……… 79
Graph4.9 Pretest and Posttest of Autonomy( LS Groups) ………… 80
Graph4.10 Pretest and Posttest of Creativity( LS Groups) ………… 82
Graph4.11 Posttest of Autonomy by Groups ………………………. 83
Graph4.12 Posttest of Creativity by Groups………………………. .. 85
List of Abbreviations
TBLT ……………… Task-Based Language Teaching
CLT ………………. Communicative Language Teaching
CCT………………. Cue Card Timed
LS ………………… Linguistic Summarizing
ALM………………… Audiolingual Method
GTM ……………….. Grammar Translation Method
EFL ………………… English as a Foreign Language
