1.7Summary…………………………………………………………………….………..12

Chapter Two:Review of the Literature

2.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….14

2.1 Language learning and strategies………………………………………………..……14

2.2 Classification of language learning strategies ………………………………….……23

2.3 Language learning and listening…………………………………………………..….28

2.3.1. What Is Listening?……………………………………………………………………………..28

2.4 Role of Listening in Second or Foreign Language Acquisition ………………….….31

2.5 Listening Comprehension Strategies ………………………………………………..…….33

2.5.1 Metacognitive Listening Strategies…………………..…………………………….39

2.5.1.1 Pre-listening Planning Strategies………………………………………….44

2.5.1.2 While-listening Monitoring Strategies……………………………………45

2.5.1.3 Post Listening Evaluating Strategies………………………………………46

2.5.2 Cognitive Strategies………………………………………………..……………….46

2.5.2.1 Bottom-up and Top-down Listening Strategies…………………………..49

2.5.3 Socio-affective Strategies………………………………………………..…………52

2.6 Empirical studies in the field of Language Learning Strategies………………………54

2.7 Summary……………………………………………………………………..……….58

Chapter Three: Methodology

3.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….59

3.1 Pilot study……………………………………………………………………………..59

3.2 Design of the study ………………………..…………………………………………60

3.3 Participants………………………………………………………………………..….61

3.4Materials ……………………………………………………………………………61

3.4.1 Oxford Placement Test………………………………….……………….….62

3.4.2 Cheng’s Scale for Listening Strategies………………………………………62

3.5 Procedure……………………………………………………………………..………63

3.6 Methods of Analyzing Data ………………………………………………………….65

3.6.1 Ethical consideration…………………………………………………….….65

3.7 Summary…………………………………………………………………………..….66

Chapter Four: Results

4.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..68

4.1 Measure of L2 Proficiency……………………………………………………………69

4.2 Questionnaire Data ……………………………………………………………………70

4.3 The First Research Question………………………………………………………….71

4.4 The Second Research Question………………………………………………………77

4.5 Computing the Effect size……………………………………………………………78

4.6 Findings of Interview………………………………………………………………….83

4.7 Summary………………………………………………………………………………86

Chapter Five: Discussion

5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………….…….87

5.1 General Discussion………………………………………………………….………..88

5.1.1 Further Considerations……………………….……………………………..89

5.2 Implications……………………………………………………………….………….90

5.2.1 Implications for teachers……………………..……………………………..91

5.2.2 Implications for Students…………………..…………………….…………94

5.2.3 Implications for Educational Policy Makers and Curriculum Developer..…94

5.3 Limitations of the study………………………………………………………………95

5.4 Suggestions for Further Research…………………………………………………….96

5.5 Summary……………………………………………………………………….……..97

References………………………………………………………………………………..98

Appendices………………………………………………………………………..……111

List of Tables

TablePage

4.1 Statistics for the OPT Scores………………………………………………………69

4.2 Reliability statistics of the questionnaire (pilot study)…………………………….70

4.3 Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)…………………………………………………………………71

4.4 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (metacognitive strategies)………………………………………………………….……..72

4.5 Item statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………73

4.6 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (cognitive strategies)………………………………………………………………………74

4.7 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.8 Descriptive statistics for the listening comprehension strategy use questionnaire (socio- affective strategies)………………………………………………………………..75

4.9 Statistics for different categories of the questionnaire……………………………76

4.10 Ranks of female and male participants on listening comprehension strategy use………………………………………………………………………………….……..78

4.11 Median value of each group (listening comprehension strategy -use questionnaire)……………………………………………………………………………..78

4.12 Mann-Whitney U Test for the listening comprehension strategy-use of males and females……………………………………………………………………………………78

4.13 Ranks for females and males in metacognitive strategies…………………..…….80

4.14 Ranks for females and males in cognitive strategies………………………………81

4.15 Ranks for females and males in socio- affective strategies…………………….…82

List of Figures

TablePage

2.1 Diagram of Oxford’s Strategy Classification System…………………………….27

4.1 The comparison between males and females in their use of listening comprehension strategies…………………………………………………………………79

4.2 The comparison between males and females in their use of metacognitive strategies………………………………………………………………………………….81

4.3 The comparison between males and females in their use of cognitive strategies…………………………………………………………………………………..82

4.4 The comparison between males and females in their use of socio- affective strategies………………………………………………………………………………….83

Abstract

The main goal of this investigation was to identify the listening strategies of Iranian male and female foreign (English) language learners and to compare the listening strategies of both groups of research participants. To investigate, 76 undergraduate students of different major of English were selected via administrating the Oxford Placement Test (OPT).Then, they were divided into two groups of 38asked to complete Cheng’ s (2002) 30-item Listening Strategyin the Likert-scale format to identify the listening strategies they use. Then the data gathered were run through statistical tests, including descriptive test and Mann Whitney U-test. Based on the findings of the studythe listeners usedmore metacognitive strategies than cognitive and socio-affective strategies respectively.In addition, as gender influenced selecting the types of strategies for listening, it can be efficient for policy makers, syllabus designers, practitioners and instructors especially in Iran where classrooms are separated according to students’gender.

2.2.1.2 Morphology and ultra-structure of starch grains. 24

2.2.1.3 Semi-crystalline structure of starch grains. 27

2.2.1.4 Thermal transitions. 30

2.2.1.5 Starch modification. 35

2.2.1.6 Cassava. 41

2.2.2 Carrageenan. 53

2.2.2.1 Chemical Structure. 53

2.2.2.2 Conformation of κ-carrageenan. 54

2.2.2.3 Gelation of κ-carrageenan. 60

2.2.2.4 Thermoreversibility of gels and rheological properties. 61

2.3 POLYSACCHARIDE MIXTURES. 65

2.3.1 Phase Behavior 65

2.3.2 Thermodynamic Incompatibility. 66

2.3.3 Gels based on mixtures polysaccharides. 68

2.3.3.1 Rheological properties. 69

2.3.3.2 Rheology of blends of starch. 70

Chapter 3:Materialsand Methods. 72

3.1 Materials. 73

3.1.1 Gelatin. 73

3.1.2 κ-carrageenan. 73

3.1.3 Acid hydrolyzed hydroxypropylated cassava starch. 73

3.2 Methods. 74

3.2.1 Preparation of solutions. 74

3.2.1.1 Gelatin solutions. 74

3.2.1.2 Starch and κ-carrageenan solutions. 74

3.2.2 Rheological properties. 77

3.2.2.1 Flow properties. 77

3.2.2.2 Viscoelastic properties. 78

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions. 79

4.1 Rheological behavior of gelatin. 80

4.1.1 Gelatin solution at 50 °C.. 80

4.1.2 Sol-gel transitions. 82

4.1.3 Viscoelastic properties of gelatin gels at 20 °C.. 86

4.2 Rheological behavior of starch-κ-carrageenan blends. 90

4.2.1 Rheological behavior at 50 °C.. 90

4.2.1.1 Dually modified cassava starch (HHSS) 90

4.2.1.2 κ-carrageenan. 95

4.2.1.3 Dually modified cassava starch/κ-carrageenan blends. 96

4.2.2 Rheological behavior in sol-gel transitions (from 50 °C to 20 °C) 102

4.2.2.1 Influence of κ-carrageenan content 104

4.2.2.2 Influence of the different extents of starch hydrolysis. 106

4.2.3 Rheological properties of gels at 20 °C.. 107

4.2.3.1 κ-Carrageenan gels. 107

4.2.3.2 Composite gels. 108

Chapter 5: Discussion and Conclusion. 113

5.1 Synergy and gel state. 114

5.1.1 Dually modified cassava starch and κ-carrageenan. 114

5.1.2 Mixtures. 115

5.2 Comparison with gelatin. 120

5.2.1 Solution properties. 120

5.2.2 Jellification. 121

5.3 Conclusion and recommendation for future research. 123

References. 126

List of Tables

Table 2. 1: Properties and applications of modified starches. 35

Table 2. 2: Performance of starch slurry dewatering by a conventional centrifuge from a typical cassava starch factory. 51

Table 3.1: Compositions of the starch- κ-carrageenan solution. 76

Table 4.1: Changes in viscosity of gelatin as a function of concentration. Experiments were performed at 50 °C 81

(G’= G”) during cooling from 50 to 25 °C and heating from 25 to 50 °C. The rate of heating or cooling was 1°C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 86

Table 4.3: Viscosity of κ-carrageenan in different concentrations. 95

) of κ-carrageenan alone and the mixture HHSS12-κ-carrageenan determined from cooling and heating ramps at 1 °C/min and 1 rad/s. 104

Table 4.5: Storage and loss moduli G’ and G” of κ-carrageenan alone and HHSS12-κC0.5 mixture determined from temperature ramps during cooling and heating at 1 °C/min by rheological measurements. Frequency: 1 rad/s. 111

List of Figures

Figure 1.1: Research flowchart 7

Figure 2. 1: Formation of hard gelatin capsules by dip molding. 12

Figure 2. 2: Position fingers dipping during passage through the drying ovens. 13

Figure 2. 3: Steps removing (a) trimming (b), and assembly of capsules ©. 14

Figure 2. 4: Water content at equilibrium of pharmaceutical hard empty gelatin capsules in relationship with the mechanical behavior. The capsules are stored at different relative humidities for two weeks at 20 ° C. 16

Figure 2. 5: Isothermal sorption-desorption capsules hard gelatin and HPMC at equilibrium at 25°C. 19

Figure 2. 6: Test for fragility of the capsules: the percentage of broken capsules according to their water content. a: resistance to pressure with capsules filled with corn starch. b: impact resistance with empty capsules. 19

Figure 2. 7: Structure of amylose. 22

Figure 2. 8: Structure of amylopectin. 23

Figure 2. 9: Grains of different starches observed in scanning electron microscopy SEM (magnification × 280) 24

Figure 2. 10: The different levels of grain starch. 25

Figure 2. 11: Organization of starch grains in “blocklets”. 27

Figure 2. 12: X-ray diffraction diagram for crystalline starch type A, B and C. 28

Figure 2. 13: Crystallinity of potato starch: influence of water content on the resolution of the diffraction pattern of X-rays. 29

Figure 2. 14: Crystalline arrangement of double helices of amylose type A and B.. 30

Figure 2. 15: Variation of classical transitions of the potato starch as a function of water content 33

Figure 2. 16: Hydroxypropylation reaction. 38

Figure 2. 17: Mass balance of cassava starch manufacturing process in a starch factory with a decanter. 47

Figure 2. 18: Mass balance of cassava starch manufacturing process in a starch factory without a decanter. 48

Figure 2. 19: Starch granules trapped in discharged pulp of cassava starch process. 49

). 54

Figure 2. 18: Percentage of order of κ-carrageenan solution by polarimetry (0) and conductivity measurements (D) 55

. 57

Figure 2. 20: Phase diagram of κ-carrageenan representing the variation of transition temperature on cooling and heating according to the total concentration of potassium (Rochas, 1982; Rochas & Rinaudo, 1980). 59

Figure 2. 21: κ -Carrageenan gelation model, cation to promote gelation. (Morris et al., 1980) 60

: melting temperature. Cooling G’ (■), G” (¨). Heating G’ (□), G” (◊). (Fernandes, Gonçalves & Doublier, 1992). 63

Figure 2. 23: Kinetics of evolution of κ-carrageenan at a concentration of 1%. Temperature is 25 ° C. Frequency 1Hz. G’ (■), G” (¨). 64

Figure 2. 24: Phase diagram at 25 °C mixture of waxy hydroxypropyl starch/κ-carrageenan. 67

Figure 3.1: Phase diagram of κ-carrageenan representing the variation of transition temperature on cooling and heating according to the total concentration of potassium.. 75

Figure 4.1: Newtonian behavior of gelatin at 50 °C and 20% concentration. 80

Figure 4.2: Mechanical spectrum of 25% gelatin solution. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Experiments were performed at 50 °C, strain amplitude was 1%.. 82

Figure 4.3: Storage and loss moduli G¢, G² for a 25% gelatin sample during a cooling ramp. Temperature was ramped from 50 to 20 °C at 1°C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 84

Figure 4.4: Storage and loss moduli G¢, G² as a function of temperature during a heating ramp of a 25% gelatin sample. Temperature was ramped from 25 °C to 50 °C at 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 85

Figure 4.5: Mechanical spectrum of 25% gelatin. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. The temperature was 20 °C. Strain amplitude: 1%. 87

Figure 4.6: Changes in modulus G’ and G” as a function of time for a 27% gelatin gel. Measurement temperature was 20 ° C. Frequency: 1 rad / s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 88

Figure 4.7: Changes in G’ as function of gelatin concentration. Data obtained after 6 h of time sweep measurement at 20 °C. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%. 89

Figure 4.8: Flow curves of hydrolyzed hydroxypropylated cassava starch dispersions at a concentration of 25% (g/g): HHSS6 (●), HHSS12 (■), HHSS18 (o), HHSS24 (€). Measurements were performed at 50 °C.. 91

Figure 4.9: Flow curves for dually modified cassava starch (HHSS12) dispersions at a concentration of 25% (g/g). Measurement was performed at 50 °C.. 92

Figure 4.10: Flow curves of dispersions of hydroxypropyl cassava starch HHSS12 at concentrations of 20% (■), 23% (●) and 25% (▲). Temperature was 50°C.. 93

Figure 4.11: Mechanical spectra of different dually modified cassava starches at concentrations of 25%: a) HHSS6, b) HHSS12, c) HHSS18, d) HHSS24. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Measurement temperature was 50 °C and strain amplitude was 1%.. 94

Figure 4.12: Newtonian behavior of κ-carrageenan in the concentration range of 0.25% to 1% at 50 °C 96

Figure 4.13: Flow curves of the mixture HHSS12-κC0.5 (¨), 20%HHSS12 and 0.5% κ-carrageenan, κC0, 5 (×), and starch dispersions HHSS12 20% (□), 23% (○) and 25% (Δ). The temperature was 50 °C 97

filled symbols. 98

Figure 4.15: Flow curves of mixtures of 25% starch HHSS12 with κ-carrageenan at different concentrations. Measurements were taken at 50 °C.. 99

Figure 4.16: Flow curves for 0.5% κ-carrageenan and mixtures of 25% dually modified cassava starches/κC0.5. Measurement temperature was 50 °C. 100

Figure 4.17: Mechanical spectrum of κC0.5 (solid lines ■, □), HHSS12 (solid lines ●, ○), and the mixture κC0.5-HHSS12 (■, □). Concentration of HHSS12 alone was 25% and in combination total concentration was 25%. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Measurement temperature: 50 ° C. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 101

Figure 4.18: Variation of viscoelastic modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature for κC0.5 and for the mixture of κC0.5 and HHSS12. a) Cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C. b) Heating from 20 °C to 50 °C. Heating/cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 103

Figure 4.19: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C for 25% HHSS24 alone and in combination with κ-carrageenan. G”: filled symbols; G’: empty symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 105

Figure 4.20: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during cooling from 50 °C to 20 °C for 1% κ-carrageenan and 25% starch mixtures. G’: empty symbols; G”: filled symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 106

Figure 4.21: Variations of modulus G’ and G” as a function of temperature during heating from 20 °C to 60 °C for 1% κ-carrageenan and 25% starch mixtures. G’: empty symbols; G”: filled symbols. Cooling rate: 1 °C/min. Frequency: 1 rad/s. Strain amplitude: 1%.. 107

Figure 4.22: Mechanical spectra of κC1 (■, □), κC0.75 (●, ○) and κC0.5 (▲, Δ). G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Temperature: 20 ° C. Strain amplitude: 1%. 108

Figure 4. 23: Mechanical spectrum of κC0.5 (●, ○), 25% HHSS12 (dashed line with ▲, Δ) and the mixture of κC0.5-HHSS12 (■, □) at 20°C. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Strain amplitude: 0.1% for mixtures and 1% for constituents. 109

Figure 4.24: Mechanical spectrum of mixtures HHSS12-κC1(▲, Δ), HHSS12-κC0.5 (dashed line with ●, ○) and HHSS12-κC0.25 (■, □) at 20 °C. G’: filled symbols, G”: empty symbols. Strain amplitude: 0.1% 110

2004, p. 2.

Le dernier insiste sur le rôle important de la rêverie et de l’imagination dans la création des œuvres littéraires. En effet, Bachelard et Durand ont toujours eu un regard particulier sur l’image. D’après eux, les images poétiques ont un système qui est définit par l’imaginaire. Ce dernier se base sur les images originelles sans lesquelles les manifestations de la vie et des valeurs vitales seraient impossible. Ces images sont celles qui sont inspirées par les matières fondamentales, par les mouvements principaux, comme monter et descendre, et par les quatre éléments fondamentaux: feu, eau, terre, air.

Dans son ouvrage:Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire.Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, paru pour la première fois en 1960, Gilbert Durand présente sa démarche. L’ouvrage a pour objet de définir le sémantisme primitif des images et d’établir une”classification des grands symboles de l’imagination“. Il établit que les produits de l’imagination ont une signification intrinsèque, qui détermine notre représentation du monde. Il définit l’imagination comme «la racine de toute pensée. »¹

[1] CHELEBOURG, Christian,L’imaginaire littéraire, Des archétypes à la poétique du sujet, Paris, Nathan, 2000, p. 57.

Les réalités géographiques et cosmiques, les structures sociales, la conscience de la fécondité féminine, de la force virile, toutes ces données objectives de la perception se mêlent à nos pulsions profondes pour constituer notre représentation du monde. Entre ces deux dimensions de la réalité, l’une objective, l’autre subjective, l’imagination opère un perpétuel va-et-vient, un échange constant, auquel Gilbert Durand donne le nom de “trajet anthropologique.” Ce trajet définit l’imaginaire:

«Finalement, l’imaginaire n’est rien d’autre que ce trajet dans lequel la représentation de l’objet se laisse assimiler et modeler par les impératifs pulsionnels du sujet, et dans lequel réciproquement, comme l’a magistralement montré Piaget, les représentations subjectives s’expliquent«par les accommodations antérieures du sujet» au milieu objectif.»¹

D’après Durand, toutes pensée repose sur des images, qui n’ont rien à voir ni avec la mémoire, ni aves la perception.

1 DURAND, Gilbert,Les Structures anthropologiques de l’imaginaire,Introduction à l’archétypologie générale, Paris, Dunod, 1992, p.38.

En effet, la conception de l’anthropologie de l’imaginaire que Gilbert Durand a construit s’est fait sur cette constatation qu’à l’origine de toute culture, il y a une peur essentielle qui est la peur de la fuite du temps. Ce que Durand appelle le Chronos dévorant, que toutes les productions, pratiquement imaginaires et intellectuelles peuvent relever des réponses à cette fuite du temps.

En réalité, le principe classification de Durand est la bipartition des symboles entre deux grands régimes: “diurne et nocturne”. Ces régimes représentent deux manières de lutter contre le temps et l’angoisse de mort. Fondamentalement antithétique, le régime diurne oppose deux grandes catégories d’images, les unes qui signifient l’angoisse devant le temps, les autres la volonté de vaincre celle-ci et de s’élever au-dessus de la condition humaine. Parmi les premières, on distingue trois types de symboles représentant les visages du temps. D’abord dessymboles thériomorphes, des images animales qui signifient soit l’agitation et le changement, soit l’agressivité et la cruauté. Ensuite viennent dessymboles nyctomorphes, des images de la nuit qui transposent en terme d’obscurité la craint engendrée par le temps. Il groupe les images de l’impureté, de l’eau noire, mais aussi celle de l’aveuglement. Enfin, dessymboles catamorphes, des images de la chute, mais aussi des images du sang, du vertige, de la pesanteur ou de l’écrasement. Ces symboles disent la déchéance de l’homme, chassé du paradis et devenu mortel.

À toutes ces images des temps, valorisés négativement, s’oppose le symbolisme symétrique de la victoire sur le destin et sur la mort. Il constitue le deuxième type d’images du régime diurne. À l’intérieure de celui-ci, Gilbert Durand distingue de nouveau trois catégories de symboles. En premier lieu, dessymboles ascensionnels, par lesquels l’homme atteint à une souveraineté céleste, on trouve ici les images de l’élévation, de l’aile, de l’ange, du géant. Puis, dessymboles spectaculaires, ils groupent les symboles de la lumière et les organes de la lumière: le soleil, l’œil, le verbe divin. Pour finir, dessymboles diaïrétique, symboles de la puissance et de pureté qui se composent des armes et des insignes de la victoire, de l’accession à la transcendance: flèche, glaive, etc.

Les structures mystiques et synthétiques constituent le régime nocturne. Le premier cherche à nier le temps sur le mode de l’antiphrase, et le deuxième à s’en accommoder, à tirer parti de sa nature cyclique.

Dans les structures mystiques les symboles ne font plus vivre le monde en termes de conflit, comme dans l’antithèse, mais visent, au contraire, à réduire ses dangers, à les euphémiser au point de les nier, de les inverser, comme par antiphrase. Ils se répartissent en deux groupes: un groupe d’images de l’inversion et un groupe d’images de l’intimité. Ces structures de mystiques conjuguent une volonté d’union avec le monde et le goût de l’intimité secrète. Elles reçoivent également l’épithète d’antiphrasiques, pour souligner que leur fonctionnement générale est celui de l’antiphrase.

Dans les structures synthétiques ou (dramatiques) les symboles sont tous cycliques, ils sont animés par le désire de maîtriser le temps en utilisant ses rythmes propres. Pour y parvenir, ils s’orientent soit dans le sens de l’eternel retour, soit dans celui du progrès. Les cycles de l’éternel retour comportent une phase négative et une phase positive, la première étant interprétée comme nécessaire à l’avènement de la seconde, ce qui en euphémise la négativité. Dans les symboles progressistes, le dernier cycle«n’est qu’un cycle tronqué ou mieux une phase cyclique ultime emboîtant tous les autres cycles comme figures et ébauches de l’ultime procès.»¹Les symboles cycliques se présentent sous la forme de récits dramatiques, de mythes opérant la synthèse, la réconciliation si l’on préfère, d’images qui s’opposent dans les autres structures de l’imaginaire. Les modèles naturels de ces cycles sont les phrases de la lune et le cycle végétal des saisons.

Puisqu’ un travail constituant tous les deux régimes deviendra trop long pour un mémoire de maîtrise, notre travail se contente d’étudier les images du régime diurne de l’imaginaire.

[1]Ibid., p. 322.

Temps est un thème fréquent chez Le Clézio, Pour étudier ce concept chez Le Clézio, nous essaierons de voir, d’une part, si il prouve une certaine peur face à la fuite du temps? Si oui, pourquoi? D’une autre part, est- ce qu’il pourrait maîtriser la fuite du temps? Si oui, comment?